Reference papers on oils in our diet
Many people have been asking about research on this diet. You should understand that this diet is a compilation of
several well researched principles and some other not so well researched principles. When dealing with pain and
food the rule we go by is, when in doubt, leave it out.
That said, there has been quite a lot of research on oils and pain. Several of the major hormones that regulate
the inflammatory process come from food, the oils, particularly the essential fatty acids. These foods are not the
hormones themselves but rather the precursors to the hormones. The human body cannot make double bonds in fat
molecules where they are needed to make the hormones, but plants can, and fish can. So we must eat these fats. If
you eat too much of the kind of oil that makes inflammation worse, then you will suffer with more pain than you
normally should.
So, here is a list of some 467 papers used as reference for a journal published in 1990. You will see that this
information on oils and pain is not new by any means.
On the next page there is a paper by Dr. Meschino on these
oils. At the end of his paper there are several more recent references.
These 467 references are from the publication
Reviews in Contemporary Pharmacotherapy
Editors: S. Johnson & F.N. Johnson
Volume 1 Number 1, 1990
Gamma Linolenic Acid
ISSN: 0954-8602
Marinus Press
PO Box 15, Carnforth, LA6 1HW, UK
REFERENCES
1. Mead JF, Fulco AJ. The unsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids in health and disease. Springfield: CC
Thomas, 1976.
2. Horrobin DF (ed). Omega-6 Essential fatty acids: Pathophysiology and roles in clinical medicine. New York:
Alan Liss, 1990.
3. Rivers JPW, Frankel TL. Essential fatty acid deficiency. Br Med Bull 1981; 37: 59-64.
4. Sinclair HM. Essential fatty acids and chronic degenerative diseases. In: Rose J, ed. Nutrition and Killer
Diseases. Park Ridge NJ: Noytes, 1982: 69-83.
5. Holman RT. George 0 Burr and the discovery of essential fatty acids. J Nutr 1988; 118: 535-540.
6. Holman RT. Control of polyunsaturated acids in tissue lipids. J Am Coll Nutr 1986; 5: 183-211.
7. Alfin-Slater RB, Aftergood L. Essential fatty acids reinvestigated. Physiol Rev 1968; 48: 758-784.
8. Garcia PT, Holman RT. Competitive inhibitions in the metabolism of polyunsaturated fatty acids studied via
the composition of the phospholipids, triglycerides and cholesterol esters of rat tissues. J Am Oil Chem Soc 1965;
42: 1137-1141.
9. Sprecher H. Biochemistry of essential fatty acids. Prog Lipid Res 1982; 20: 13-22.
10. Brenner RR. Nutritional and hormonal factors in- fluencing desaturation of essential fatty acids. Prog Lipid
Res 1982; 20: 41-48.
11. Horrobin DF. The regulation of prostaglandin biosynthesis by the manipulation of essential fatty acid
metabolism. Rev Pure Appi Pharmacol Sci 1983; 4: 339-342.
12. Maeda M, Doi 0, Akamatsu Y. Metabolic conversion of polyunsaturated fatty acids in mammalian cultured cells.
Biochim Biophys Acta 1978; 530: 153-164.
13. Sinclair HM. Essential fatty acids and the skin. Br Med Bull 1958; 14: 258-262.
14. Prottey C. Investigation of functions of essential fatty acids in the skin. Br J Dermatol 1977; 97:
29-38.
15. Nugteren DH, Christ-Hazelhof E, van der Beck A et al. Metabolism of linoleic acid and other essential fatty
acids in the epidermis of the rat. Biochem Biophys Acta 1985; 834: 429-436.
16. Haas TA, Bastida E, Nakamura K et al. Binding of 13-HODE and 5-, 12- and 15-HETE to endothelial cells and
subsequent platelet, neutrophil and tumor cell adhesion. Biochim Biophys Acta 1988; 961: 153-159.
17. Thomasson HJ. Essential fatty acids. Nature 1954; 173: 452.
18. Hassam AG, Rivers JPW, Crawford MA. Metabolism of gamma-linolenic acid in essential fatty acid-deficient
rats. J Nutr 1977; 107: 519-524.
19. Hassam AG. The influence of alpha-linolenic acid (18:3w3) on the metabolism of gamma-linolenic acid (18:3w6)
in the rat. Br J Nutr 1977; 38: 137-140.
20. Frankel TL, Rivers JPW. The nutritional and metabolic impact of gamma-linolenic acid on cats deprived of
animal lipid. Br J Nutr 1978; 39: 227-231.
21. Gibson RA, Kneebone GM. Fatty acid composition of human colostrum and mature breast milk. Am J Clin Nutr
1981; 34: 252-260.
22. Harzer G, Haug M, Dieterich I, Gentner PR. Changing patterns of human milk lipids in the course of lactation
and during the day. Am J Clin Nutr 1983; 37: 612-622.
23. Qureshi AA, Schnoes HK, Din ZZ, Peterson DM. Determination of the structure of cholesterol inhibitor II
isolated from high protein barley flour. Fed Proc 1984; 43: 2626.
24. Hudson BJF. Evening primrose (Oenothera spp.) oil and seed. J Am Oil Chem Soc 1984; 61(3): 540-543.
25. Traitler H, Winter H, Richli U, Ingenbleek Y. Characterization of gamma-linolenic acid in Ribes seed. Lioids
1984; 19: 923-928.
26 Whipkey A, Simon JE, Janick J. In vivo and in vitro lipid accumulation in Borago officinalis L. J Am Oil Chem
Soc 1988; 65: 979-984.
27. Muderhwa JM, Dhuique-Mayer C, Pina M. Distribution of fatty acids in the triglycerides of gamma-linolenic
acid containing oils. Oleagineux 1987; 42: 207-211.
28. Fukuda H, Morikawa H. Enhancement of gamma-linolenic acid production by Mucor ambiguus with nonionic
surfactants. Appi Microbiol Biotechnol 1987; 27: 15-20.
29. Hansson L, Dostaiek M. Effect of culture conditions on mycelial growth and production of gamma-linolenic
acid by the fungus Mortierella ramanniana. Appi Microbiol Biotechnol 1988; 28: 240-246.
30. Roughan PG. Spirulina: A source of dietary gamma-linolenic acid? J Sci Food Agric 1989; 47: 85-93.
31. Horrobin DF, Manku MS. Clinical biochemistry of
essential fatty acids. In: Horrobin DF, ed. Omega-6
essential fatty acids: Pathophysiology and roles in
clinical medicine. New York: Alan R Liss, 1990:
21-53.
32. Mitsuhashi N, Takano A, Kato J. Inhibition of the
binding of R-5020 and rat uterine progesterone recep-
tors by long chain fatty acids. Endocrinol Jpn 1986:
33: 251-256.
33. Clerc-Hoffman F, Vallette G, Secco-Millet C, Christ-
eff N, Benassayag C, Adrien Nunez E. Inhibition of
the uterine binding of estrogens by unsaturated fatty
acids in the immature rat. C R Acad Sci Paris 1983;
296: 53-58.
34. Goodfriend TL, Ball DL. Fatty acid effects on
angiotensin receptors. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 1986;
8: 1276-1283.
35. Ho WKK, Cox BM. Reduction of opioid binding in
neuroblastoma X glioma cells grown in medium con-
taining unsaturated fatty acids. Biochim Biophys Acta
1982; 688: 211-217.
36. Simpson LO. Altered blood rheology in the
pathogenesis of diabetic and other neuropathies. Mus-
cle Nerve 1988; 11: 725-744.
37. Abdulla YH, Adams CWM, Morgan RS. Differential
resorption rates of subcutaneous implants of ^H-
cholesterol, various ^H-cholesterol esters and ^H-
cholesterol-l-^C-linolenate. J Atheroscler Res 1969;
9: 81-85.
38. Philbrick D-J, Mahadevappa VG, Ackman RG,
Holub BJ. Ingestion of fish oil or a derived n-3 fatty
acid concentrate containing eicosapentaenoic acid
affects fatty acid compositions of individual phospholi-
pids of rat brain, sciatic nerve and retina. J Nutr 1987;
117: 1663-1670.
39. Neuringer M, Anderson GJ, Connor WE. The essen-
tiality of n-3 fatty acids for the development and
function of the retina and brain. Annu Rev Nutr 1988;
8: 517-541.
40. Davidson BC, Goelst K, Cantrill RC. Limiting the
range of polyenoic fatty acids available from purified
diets affects the growth of domestic cats. In vivo 1989;
3: 183-186.
41. Ziboh VA, Chapkin RS. Biologic significance oi
polyunsaturated fatty acids in the skin. Arch Dermatol
1987; 123: 1686a-1690a.
42. Kramar J, Levine VE. Influence of fats and fatty acids
on the capillaries. J Nutr 1953; 50: 149-160.
43. Williams G, Crawford MA, Pen-in WF. Comparison
of the fatty acid component in structural lipids from
dolphin, zebra and giraffe: possible evolutionary im-
plications. J Zool Lond 1987; 213: 673-684.
44. Huang Y-S, Horrobin DF. Sex differences in n-3 and
n-6 fatty acid metabolism in EFA-depleted rats. Proc
Soc Exp Biol Med 1987; 185: 291-296.
45. Loeb HG, Burr GO. A study of sex difference in the
composition of rats with emphasis on the lipid compo-
nent. J Nutr 1947; 33: 541-551.
46. Greenberg SM, Calbert CE, Savage EE, Deuel H.
The effect of fat level of the diet on general nutrition.
6. The interrelation of linoleate and linolenate in
supplying the essential fatty acid requirement in the
rat. J Nutr 1950; 41: 473-486.
47. Mohrhauer H, Holman RT. The effect of dose level
of EFA upon fatty acid composition of the rat liver. J
Lipid Res 1963; 4: 151-159.
48. Aftergood L, Alfin-Slater RB. Dietary and gonadal
hormone effects on lipid metabolism in the rat. J
Lipid Res 1965; 6: 287-294.
49. Lyman RL, Ostwald R, Bouchard P, Shannon A.
Effect of sex and gonadal hormones on rat plasma
lipids during the development of an essential fatty acid
deficiency. Biochem J 1966; 98: 438-450.
50. Pudelkewicz C, Seufert J, Holman RT. Requirements
of the female rat for linoleic and linolenic acids. J
Nutr 1968; 64: 138-150.
51. Peifer JJ, Holman RT. Essential fatty acids, diabetes
and cholesterol. Arch Biochem Biophys 1955; 57:
520-521.
52. Emken EA. Nutrition and biochemistry of trans and
positional fatty acid isomers in hydrogenated oils. Am
Rev Nutr 1984; 4: 339-376.
53. Enig MG, Munn RJ, Keeney M. Dietary fat and
cancer trends - a critique. Fed Proc 1978; 37: 2215-
2220.
54. Horrobin DF, Huang YS. The role of linoleic acid
and its metabolites in the lowering of plasma
cholesterol and the prevention of cardiovascular dis-
ease. Int J Cardiol 1987; 17: 241-255.
55. Holman RT. Aaes-Jorgensen E. Effects of trans fatty
acid isomers upon essential fatty acid deficiency in
rats. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1956; 109: 1759-1765.
56. Hill EG, Johnson SB, Holman RT. Intensification of
essential fatty acid deficiency in the rat by dietary
trans fatty acids. J Nutr 1979; 109: 1759-1765.
57. Holman RT. Perturbation of the metabolism of essen-
tial fatty acids by dietary partially hydrogenated veget-
able oil. Proc Nati Acad Sci USA 1982; 79: 953-957.
58. Ohirogge JB, Emken EA, Gulley RM. Human tissue
lipids: occurence of fatty acid isomers from dietary
hydrogenated oils. J Lipid Res 1981; 22: 955-960.
59. Kummerow FA. Nutrition imbalance and angiotoxins
as dietary risk factors in coronary heart disease. Am
Clin Nutr 1979; 32: 58-83.
60. Kritchevsky D. Trans fatty acids in experimental
atherosclerosis. Fed Proc 1982; 41: 2813-2817.
61. Horrobin DF, Huang Y-S, Cunnane SC, Manku MS.
Essential fatty acids in plasma, red blood cells and
liver phospholipids in common laboratory animals as
compared to humans. Lipids 1984; 19: 806-811.
62. Sinclair AJ. Essential fatty acid requirements of diffe-
rent species. Proc Nutr Soc Aust 1985; 10; 41-48.
63. Kendler BS. Gamma-linolenic acid: physiological
effects and potential medical applications. J Appi Nutr
1987; 39: 79-93.
64. Horrobin DF, Manku MS. Essential fatty acids in
clinical medicine. Nutr Health 1983; 2: 127-134.
65. Horrobin DF. Clinical aspects of essential fatty acids
(EFAs). Farm Tijdschr Beig 1988; 65: 164-167.
66. Horrobin DF. Clinical aspects of the uses of gamma-
linolenic acid. Presented at International Symposium
on New Aspects of Dietary Lipids. Swedish Institute
for Food Research, Goteborg, Sept, 1989.
67. Horrobin DF. Polyunsaturated oils of marine and
plant origin and their uses in clinical medicine. In:
Galli C, ed. Dietary n-3 and n-6 fatty acids: Biological
effects and nutritional essentiality. New York: Plenum
Press, 1988: 297-307.
68. Horrobin DF. Prostaglandins: Physiology and clinical
significance. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone, 1978.
69. Kirtland SJ. Prostaglandin Ei: a review. Prostaglan-
dins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 1988; 32: 165-174.
70. Horrobin DF. Prostaglandin Ei: physiological signifi-
cance and clinical use. Wien Klin Wochenschr 1988;
10: 471-477.
71. Willis AL. Nutritional and pharmacological factors in
eicosanoid biology. Nutr Rev 1981; 39: 289-300.
72. Miller CC, McCreedy CA, Jones AD, Ziboh VA.
Oxidative metabolism of dihomogammalinolenic acid
by guinea pig epidermis: evidence of generation of
anti-inflammatory products. Prostaglandins 1988; 35:
917-938.
73. Miller CC, Ziboh VA. Gamma-linolenic acid-enriched
diet alters cutaneous eicosanoids. Biochem Biophys
Res Commun 1988; 154: 967-974.
74. Ziboh VA. Biochemical basis for the anti-
inflammatory action of gamma-linolenic acid. In: Hor-
robin DF, ed. Omega-6 essential fatty acids:
Pathophysiology and roles in clinical medicine. New
York: Alan Liss, 1990: 187-201.
75. Ayala S, Gaspar G, Brenner RR, Peluffo RO, Kunau
W. Fate of linoleic, arachidonic, and docosa-
7,10,13,16-tetraenoic acids in rat testicles. J Lipid Res
1973; 14: 296-305.
76. Peluffo RO, Ayala S, Brenner RR. Metabolism of
fatty acids in the linoleic acid series in testicles of rats.
Am J Physiol 1970; 218: 669-673.
77. Horrobin DF. Loss of delta-6-desaturase activity as a
key factor in aging. Med Hypotheses 1981; 7: 1211-
1220.
78. Darcet P, Driss F, Mendy F, Delhaye N. Effect of a
diet enriched with gamma-linolenic acid on PUFA
metabolism and platelet aggregation in elderly men.
Ann Nutr 1980; 34: 277-290.
79. Hrelia S, Bordoni A, Celadon M et al. Age-related
changes in linoleate and alpha-linolenate desaturation
by rat liver microsomes. Biochem Biophys Res Com-
mun 1989; 163: 348-355.
80. Bordoni A, Biagi PL, Turchetto E, Hrelia S. Aging
influence on delta-6-desaturase activity and fatty acid
composition of rat liver microsomes. Prostaglandins
Leukot Essent Fattv Acids, in Dress.
81. Hrelia S, Bordoni A, Horrobin DF. Reversal of
age-related changes in linoleic and alpha-linolenic acid
desaturation by administration of Efamol evening
primrose oil. Submitted for publication.
82. Brenner RR, Peluffo RO, Mercuri 0, Restelli MA.
Effect of arachidonic acid in the alloxan diabetic rat.
Am J Physiol 1968; 215: 63-69.
83. De Alaniz MJT, Brenner RR. Effect of insulin upon
the lipids of subcellular fractions of rat liver. Acta
Physiol Lat Am 1969; 19: 1-15.
84. De Alaniz MJT, De Gomez Dumm INT, Brenner
RR. The action of insulin and dibutyryl cyclic AMP
on the biosynthesis of polyunsaturated fatty acids of
the alpha-linolenic acid family in HTC cells. Mol Cell
Biochem 1976; 12: 3-8.
85. Faas FH, Carter WJ. Altered fatty acid desaturation
and microsomal fatty acid composition in streptozoto-
cin diabetic rat. Lipids 1980; 15: 953-961.
86. Faas FH, Carter WJ. Altered microsomal lipid com-
position in the streptozotocin diabetic rat. Lipids 1983;
18: 339-342.
87. Friedman N, Gellhorn A, Benjamin W. Synthesis of
arachidonic acid from linoleic acid in vivo in diabetic
rats. Israel J Med Sci 1966; 2: 677-682.
88. Holman RT, Johnson SB, Gerrard JM et al. Arachi-
donic acid deficiency in streptozotocin-induced di-
abetes. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 1983; 80: 2375-2379.
89. Huang Y-S, Fujii K, Takahashi R et al. Effect of
diabetes on the metabolism of n-3 and n-6 fatty acids
in rats. IRCS J Med Sci 1985; 13: 1145-1146.
90. Huang Y-S, Takahashi R, Fujii K. Effect of type of
diet on docosahexaenoic acid level in streptozotocin-
induced diabetic rat. J Am Oil Chem Soc 1986; 63:
476.
91. Mercuri 0, Peluffo RO, Brenner RR. Depression of
microsomal desaturation of linoleic to gamma-linolenic
acid in the alloxan diabetic rat. Biochim Biophys Acta
1966; 116: 407-411.
92. Poisson J-P. Comparative in vivo and in vitro study of
the influence of experimental diabetes on rat liver
linoleic acid 6- and 5-desaturation. Enzyme 1985; 34:
1-14.
93. Poisson J-P, Blond J-P. Effect of streptozotocin di-
abetes upon the in vivo conversion of ^C-gamma-
linolenic and dihomogammalinolenic acids into arachi-
donic acid in kidneys and whole rat. Diabete Metab
1985; 11: 289-294.
94. Poisson J-P, Blond J-P, Lemarchal P. Influence of
streptozotocin diabetes on conversion of gamma-
linolenic and dihomogammalinolenic acids to arachi-
donic acid in the rat in vivo. Diabete Metab 1979; 5:
43-46.
95. Poisson J-P, Lemarchal P, Blond J-P et al. Influence
of alloxan diabetes on the conversion of linoleic and
gamma-linolenic acids to arachidonic acid in the rat in
vivo. Diabete Metab 1978; 4: 39-45.
96. Wilder PJ, Coniglio JG. The effects of streptozotocin
diabetes and of dietary protein content on the com-
position and metabolism of testicular lipids. Proc Soc
Exp Biol Med 1984; 177: 399-405.
97. Huang Y-S, Horrobin DF, Manku MS, Mitchell J,
Ryan MA. Tissue phospholipid fatty acid composition
in the diabetic rat. Lipids 1984; 19: 367-370.
98. Horrobin DF. The roles of essential fatty acids in the
development of diabetic neuropathy and other com-
plications of diabetes mellitus. Prostaglandins Leukot
Essent Fatty Acids 1988; 31: 181-197.
99. Mikhailidis DP, Kirtland S, Barradas MA, Dandona
P. Dihomogammalinolenic acid inhibits platelet
aggregation and stimulates platelet prostaglandin Ei
production in healthy subjects but not insulin-
dependent diabetics. Prog Lipid Res 1986; 25: 303-
304.
100. Mikhailidis DP, Kirtland SJ, Barradas MA et al. The
effect of dihomogammalinolenic acid on platelet
aggregation and prostaglandin release, erythrocyte
membrane fatty acids and serum lipids: evidence for
defects in PGE1synthesis and delta-5-desaturase activ-
ity in insulin-dependent diabetics. Diabetes Res 1986;
3: 7-12.
101. El Boustani S, Descomps B, Monnier L et al. In vivo
conversion of dihomogammalinolenic acid into arachi-
donic acid in man. Prog Lipid Res 1986; 25: 67-71.
102. Jones DB, Carter RD, Haitas B, Mann JI. Low
phospholipid arachidonic acid values in diabetic
platelets. Br Med J 1983; 286: 173-175.
103. Miettinen TA, Tilvis RS. Effect of fish oil on serum
lipids and fatty acids of red cells and platelets in
diabetes mellitus. Circulation 1984; 70 Suppi II: 288-
294.
104. Tilvis RS, Miettinen TA. Fatty acid composition of
serum lipids, erythrocytes and platelets in insulin-
dependent women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1985; 61:
741-745.
105. Tuna N, Frankhausen S, Goetz FC. Total serum fatty
acids in diabetes: relative and absolute concentrations
of individual fatty acids. Am J Med Sci 1968; 255:
120-130.
106. Ling SM, Liu SH. Studies on plasma lipids. I. Fatty
acids of blood plasma in diabetes and nephrosis.
Chinese J Physiol 1928; 2:157-162.
107. Berend N. Uber die Rolle der stark ungesttigten
fettsauren im organismus. Biochem Zeitschr 1932;
246: 117-123.
108. Tilvis RS, Helve E, Miettinen TA. Improvement ol
diabetic control by continuous subcutaneous insulin
infusion therapy changes fatty acid composition ol
serum lipids and erythrocytes in type I (insulin-
dependent) diabetes. Diabetologia 1986; 29: 690-694.
109. Kingsbury KJ, Brett C, Stovold R, Chapman A,
Anderson J, Morgan DM. Abnormal fatty acid com-
position and human atherosclerosis. Postgrad Med
1974; 50: 425-440.
110. Oliver MF. Diet and coronary heart disease. Hum
Nutr Clin Nutr 1982; 36C: 413-427.
111. Simpson GCR, Barker K, Carter RD, Cassels E,
Mann JI. Low dietary intake of linoleic acid predis-
poses to myocardial infarction. Br Med J 1982; 285:
683-684.
112. Riemersma RA, Wood DA, Butler S et al. Linoleic
content in adipose tissue and coronary heart disease.
Br Med J 1986; 292: 1423-1427.
113. Wood DA, Butler S, Riemersma RA et al. Adipose
tissue and platelet fatty acids and coronary heart
disease in Scottish men. Lancet 1984; 2: 117-121.
114. Oliver MF. Cigarette smoking, polyunsaturated fats,
linoleic acid, and coronary heart disease. Lancet 1989;
i: 1241-1243.
115. Oliver MF, Riemersma RA, Thomson M, Fulton M,
Abraham RA, Wood DA. Linoleic acid and coronary
heart disease. Br J Hosp Med 1989; 42: 298-302.
116. Oliver MF, Riemersma RA, Thomson M, Fulton M,
Abraham RA, Wood DA. Linoleic acid and coronary
heart disease. In: Horrobin DF, ed. Omega-6 essential
fatty acids: Pathophysiology and roles in clinical medi-
cine. New York: Alan Liss, 1990: 121-126.
117. Salonen JT, Salonen R, Pentilla I. Serum fatty acids,
apolipoproteins, selenium and vitamin antioxidants
and the risk of death from coronary artery disease.
Am J Cardiol 1985; 56: 226-231.
118. Huang Y-S, Manku MS, Horrobin DF. The effects of
dietary cholesterol on blood and liver polyunsaturated
fatty acids and on plasma cholesterol in rats fed
various types of fatty acid diet. Lipids 1984; 19:
664-672.
119. Horrobin DF. A new concept of cardiovascular dis-
ease: the importance of interactions between
cholesterol, essential fatty acids, prostaglandin E1and
TXA2. Med Hypotheses 1980; 6: 785-800.
120. Nervi AM, Peluffo RO, Brenner RR. Effect of etha-
nol administration on fatty acid desaturation. Lipids
1980; 15: 263-268.
121. Horrobin DF. A biochemical basis for alcoholism and
n for alcohol-induced damage, including the fetal alco-
hol syndrome and cirrhosis: interference with essential
fatty acid and prostaglandin metabolism. Med
Hypotheses 1980; 6: 785-800.
122. Horrobin DF. Essential fatty acids, prostaglandins and
alcoholism: an overview. Alcoholism: Clin Exp Res
1987; 11: 2-9.
123. Horrobin DF. Essential fatty acids, psychiatric dis-
orders and neuropathies. In: Horrobin DF, ed.
Omega-6 essential fatty acids: Pathophysiology and
roles in clinical medicine. New York: Alan Liss, 1990:
305-319.
124. Ailing C, Aspenstrom G, Dencker SJ, Svennerholm
L. Essential fatty acids in chronic alcoholism. Acta
Med Scand 1970; Suppi 631: 1-38.
125. Anggard E, Ailing C, Becker W, Jones AW. Chronic
ethanol exposure enhances essential fatty acid de-
ficiency in rats. Adv Prostaglandin Thromboxane Res
1983; 12: 217-222.
126. Glen AIM, Glen EMT, MacDonell LEF, Skinner FE.
Essential fatty acids and alcoholism. In: Horrobin DF,
ed. Omega-6 essential fatty acids: Pathophysiology
and roles in clinical medicine. New York: Alan Liss,
1990: 321-332.
127. Glen AIM, Skinner F, Glen EMT, MacDonell L. The
role of essential fatty acids in alcohol dependence and
tissue damage. Alcoholism Clin Exp Res 1987; 11:
37-41.
128. Stoesser AV. Effect of acute infection on iodine
number of serum fatty acids. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med
1935; 32: 1326-1327.
129. Begin ME, Ells G, Manku MS, Horrobin DF. Fatty
acid composition of plasma from AIDS patients and
normal individuals. Arch AIDS Res 1988; 3: 159-166.
130. Williams LL, Doody DM, Horrocks LA. Serum fatty
acid proportions are altered during the year following
acute Epstein-Barr virus infection. Lipids 1988; 23:
981-988.
131. Behan PO, Behan WMH, Horrobin DF. A placebo-
controlled trial of n-3 and n-6 essential fatty acids in
the treatment of post-viral fatigue syndrome. Submit-
ted for publication.
132. Dunbar LM, Bayley JM. Enzyme deletions and essen-
tial fatty acid metabolism in cultured cells. J Biol
Chem 1975; 250: 1152-1154.
133. Bayley JM. Lipid metabolism in cultured cells. In:
Snyder F, ed. Lipid metabolism in mammals. New
York: Plenum Press, 1977: 352-364.
134. Horrobin DF. Essential fatty acids, lipid peroxidation
and cancer. In: Horrobin DF, ed. Omega-6 essential
fatty acids: Pathophysiology and roles in clinical medi-
cine. New York: Alan Liss, 1990: 351-378.
135. Horrobin DF. The reversibility of cancer: the rele-
vance of cyclic AMP, calcium, essential fatty acids and
prostaglandin Ei. Med Hypotheses 1980; 6: 469-486.
136. Chiappe LE, De Tomas ME, Mercuri 0. In vitro
activity of delta-6- and delta-9-desaturases in hepato-
mas of different growth rates. Lipids 1974; 9: 489-490.
137. Howards BV, Howard WJ. Lipid metabolism in cul-
tured cells. Adv Lipid Res 1974; 12: 52-96.
138. De Alaniz MJT, Ponz G, Brenner RR. Biosynthesis
of desaturated fatty acids in cultured minimal devia-
tion hepatoma 7288C cells. Acta Physiol Lat Am
1975; 25: 1-11.
139. Reitz RC, Thompson HA, Morris HP. Mitochondrial
and microsomal phospholipids of Morris hepatoma
7777. Cancer Res 1977; 37: 561-567.
140. Morton RE, Hartz JW, Reitz RC. The acyl-CoA
desaturases of microsomes from rat liver and the
Morris 7777 hepatoma. Biochim Biophys Acta 1979;
573: 321-331.
141. De Antueno RJ, Niedfeld G, De Tomas ME. Micro-
somal fatty acid desaturation and elongation in a
human lung carcinoma growth in nude mice. Biochem
Int 1988; 16: 413-420.
142. Begin ME. Effects of polyunsaturated fatty acids and
of their oxidation products on cell survival. Chem
Phys Lipids 1987; 45: 269-313.
143. Bettger WJ, Reeves PG, Moscatelli EA, O'Dell BL.
Interaction of zinc and essential fatty acids in the rat.
J Nutr 1979; 109: 480-490.
144. Huang Y-S, Cunnane SC, Horrobin DF, Davignon J.
Most biological effects of zinc deficiency corrected by
gamma-linolenic acid but not by linoleic acid. Ather-
osclerosis 1982; 41: 193-207.
145. Cunnane SC, Horrobin DF. Parenteral linoleic and
gamma-linolenic acids ameliorate the gross effects of
zinc deficiency. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1980; 164:
583-588.
146. Ayala S, Brenner RR. Efecto de la carencia de zinc
sobre la biosintesis in vivo de los acidos grasos de la
serie linoleica en la rata. Acta Physiol Pharmacol Lat
Am. 1987; 37: 321-330.
147. Dib A, Carreau J-P. Effects of gamma-linolenic acid
supplementation on lipogenesis regulation in pregnant
zinc-deficient rat and fetus. Int J Biochem 1986; 18:
1053-1056.
148. Dib A, Carreau J-P. Effects of gamma-linolenic acid
supplementation on pregnant rats fed a zinc-deficient
diet. Ann Nutr Metab 1987; 31: 312-319.
149. Cunnane SC, Manku MS, Horrobin DF. Accumula-
tion of linoleic and gamma-linolenic acids in tissue
lipids of pyridoxine-deficient rats. J Nutr 1984; 114:
1754-1761.
150. Sherman H. Pyridoxine and fat metabolism. Vitam
Horm 1950; 8: 55-68.
151. Witten PW, Holman RT. Polyethenoid fatty acid
metabolism. VI. Effects of pyridoxine on essential
fatty acid conversions. Arch Biochem Biophys 1952;
41: 266-273.
152. Williams MA, Hincenbergs J. Methyl arachidonate
supplementation of vitamin B6-deficient rats. Arch
Biochem Biophys 1959; 83: 564-565.
153. Swell L, Law MD, Schools PE, Treadwell CR. Tissue
lipid composition in pyridoxine-deficient rats. J Nutr
1961; 74: 148-156.
154. Kirschmann JC, Coniglio JG. The role of pyridoxine
in the metabolism of polyunsaturated fatty acids in
rats. J Biol Chem 1961; 236: 2200-2204.
155. Sato Y. A possible role of pyridoxine in lipid metabol-
ism. Nagoya J Med Sci 1970; 33: 105-130.
156. Dussault PE, Lepage M. Effects of pyridoxine de-
ficiency on the composition of plasma and liver fatty
acids in rats fed low and high fat diets. J Nutr 1975;
105: 1371-1376.
157. Mahfouz MM, Kummerow FA. Effect of magnesium
deficiency on delta 6 desaturase activity and fatty acid
composition of rat liver microsomes. Lipids 1989;
24:727-732.
158. Cunnane SC, Soma M, McAdoo KR, Horrobin DF.
Magnesium deficiency in the rat increases tissue levels
of docosahexaenoic acid. J Nutr 1985; 115: 1498-1503.
159. Soma M, Cunnane SC, Horrobin DF. Effects of low
magnesium diet on the vascular prostaglandin and
fatty acid metabolism in rats. Prostaglandins 1988; 36:
431-441.
160. Hansen AE. Role of unsaturated dietary fat in infant
nutrition. Am J Public Health 1957; 47: 1367-70.
161. Hansen AE, Haggard ME, Boelsche AN et al. Essen-
tial fatty acids in human nutrition. III. Clinical man-
ifestations of linoleic acid deficiency. J Nutr 1958; 66:
565-576.
162. Hansen AE. Serum lipid changes and therapeutic
effects of various oils in infantile eczema. Proc Soc
Exp Biol Med 1933; 31: 160-161.
163. Hansen AE. Serum lipids in eczema and other patho-
logical conditions. Am J Dis Child 1937; 53: 933-946.
164. Brown WR, Hansen AE. Arachidonic acid and
linoleic acid of serum in normal and eczematous
human subjects. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1937; 30:
113-116.
165. Manku MS, Horrobin DF, Morse N et al. Reduced
levels of prostaglandin precursors in the blood of
atopic patients: defective delta-6-desaturase function
as a biochemical basis for atopy. Prostaglandins
Leukot Med 1982; 9: 615-628.
166. Manku MS, Horrobin DF, Morse NL et al. Essential
fatty acids in the plasma phospholipids of patients
with atopic eczema. Br J Dermatol 1984; 110: 643-
648.
167. Strannegard I-L, Svennerholm L, Strannegard 0.
Essential fatty acids in serum lecithin of children with
atopic dermatitis and in umbilical cord serum of
infants with high or low IgE levels. Int Arch Allergy
Appi Immunol 1987; 82: 422-423.
168. Wright S, Bolton C. Breast milk fatty acids in mothers
of children with atopic eczema. Br J Nutr 1989; 62:
693-697.
169. Wright S, Sanders TAB. Adipose tissue fatty acid
composition in patients with atopic eczema. Submitted
for publication.
170. Schalin-Karrila M, Mattila L, Jansen CT et al. Even-
ing primrose oil in the treatment of atopic eczema:
effect on clinical status, plasma phospholipid fatty
acids and circulating blood prostaglandins. Br J Der-
matol 1987; 117: 11-19.
171. Nikkari T, Salo M, Maatela J, Aromaa A. Serum
fatty acids in Finnish men. Atherosclerosis 1983; 49:
139-148.
172. Melnik BC, Plewig G. Is the origin of atopy linked to
deficient conversion of w-6 fatty acids to prostaglandin
Ei? J Am Acad Dermatol 1989; 21: 557-563.
173. Atton-Chamla A, Faure G, Goudard J-R. Premen-
strual syndrome and atopy. Pharmatherapeutica 1980;
2: 481-486.
174. Brush MG, Watson SJ, Horrobin DF, Manku MS.
Abnormal essential fatty acid levels in plasma of
women with premenstrual syndrome. Am J Obstet
Gynaecol 1984; 10: 363-366.
175. Horrobin DF, Manku MS. Premenstrual syndrome
and premenstrual breast pain (cyclical mastalgia): dis-
orders of essential fatty acid (EFA) metabolism. Pros-
taglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 1989; 37: 255-
261.
176. Horrobin DF, Begin ME. Essential fatty acids: meta-
bolism and clinical use. In: Weber HU, ed. Handbook
of free radicals and anti-oxidants in biomedicine. Boca
Raton: CRC Press, in press.
177. Halliwell B, Gutteridge JMC. Free radicals in biology
and medicine. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985.
178. Dormandy TL. An approach to free radicals. Lancet
1983; ii: 1010-1014.
179. Horrobin DF. Post-viral fatigue syndrome, viral infec-
tions in atopic eczema and essential fatty acids. Med
Hypotheses, in press.
180. Pottathil R, Chandrabose KA, Cuatrecasas P, Lang
DJ. Establishment of the interferon-mediated antiviral
state: role of fatty acid cyclo-oxygenase. Proc Nati
Acad Sci USA 1980; 7: 5437-5440.
181. Chandrabose KA, Cuatrecasas P, Pottathil R, Lang
DJ. Interferon-resistant cell line lacks cyclo-oxygenase
activity. Science 1981; 212: 329-331.
182. Strannegard 0, Strannegard I-L, Rystedt I. Viral
infections in atopic dermatitis. Acta Derm Venereol
(Stockh) 1985; Suppi 114: 121-124.
183. Hanifin J, Lobitz WC. Newer concepts of atopic
dermatitis. Arch Dermatol 1977; 113: 663-670.
184. Currie JM, Wright RC, Miller OG. The frequency of
warts in atopic patients. Cutis 1971; 8: 243-244.
185. Solomon LM, Telner P. Eruptive molluscum con-
tagiosum in atopic dermatitis. Can Med Ass J 1966;
95: 978-979.
186. Strannegard I-L, Strannegard 0. Epstein-Barr virus
antibodies in children with atopic disease. Int Archs
Allergy Appi Immunol 1981; 64: 314-319.
187. Rystedt I, Strannegard I-L, Strannegard 0. Increased
serum levels of antibodies to Epstein-Barr virus in
adults with history of atopic dermatitis. Int Archs
Allergy Appi Immunol 1984; 75: 179-183.
188. Rystedt I, Strannegard I-L, Strannegard 0. Recurrent
viral infections in patients with past or present atopic
dermatitis. Br J Dermatol 1986; 114: 575-582.
189. Manku MS, Morse-Fisher N, Horrobin DF. Changes
in human plasma essential fatty acid levels as a result
of administration of linoleic acid and gamma-hnolenic
acid. Eur J Clin Nutr 1988; 42: 55-60.
190. Hassam AG, Sinclair AJ, Crawford MA. The incor-
poration of orally fed radioactive gamma-linolenic acid
and linoleic acid into the liver and brain lipids of
suckling rats. Lipids 1975; 10: 417-420.
191. Huang Y-S, Watanabe Y, Horrobin DF, Simmons V.
Fatty acid changes in liver choline and ethanolamine
glycerophospholipids in aspirin treated rats fed linole-
ate, gamma-linolenate and fish oil. Clin Physiol
Biochem 1989; 7: 79-86.
192. Huang Y-S, Horrobin DF, Manku MS, Mitchell J.
Effect of dietary alpha and gamma linolenic acid on
tissue fatty acids in guinea pigs. Proc Soc Exp Biol
Med 1985; 178: 46-49.
193. Huang Y-S, Horrobin DF. Effect of dietary cholester-
ol and polyunsaturated fats on plasma and liver lipids
in guinea pigs. Ann Nutr Metab 1987; 31: 18-28.
194. Huang Y-S, Horrobin DF. Plasma triacylglycerol fatty
acids in diabetic rats fed gamma-linolenic and marine
n-3 fatty acids. Med Sci Res 1987; 15: 1207-1209.
195. de Bravo MMG, de Tomas ME, Mercuri 0. Metabol-
ism of gammalinolenic acid by human blood platelet
microsomes. Biochem Int 1985; 10: 889-896.
196. Vericel E, Lagarde M, Mendy F, Coupron Ph, Decha-
vanne M. Comparative effects of linoleic acid and
gamma-linolenic acid intake on plasma lipids and
platelet phospholipids in elderly people. Nutr Res
1987; 7: 569-580.
197. Takayasu K, Tada T, Okada F, Yoshikawa I. Human
plasma fatty acid composition: the features of hyperli-
poproteinemia and the influence of gamma-linolenate
and clofibrate. Jpn Circ J 1974; 35: 1059-1069.
198. Ide T, Sugano M, Ishida T, Niwa M, Arima M,
Morita A. Effects of gamma-linolenic acid on fatty
acid profiles and eicosanoid production of the hams-
ter. Nutr Res 1987; 7: 1085-1092.
199. Sugano M, Ishida T, Yoshida K, Tanaka K, Niwa M,
Arima M, Morita A. Effects of mold oil containing
gamma-linolenic acid on the blood cholesterol and
eicosanoid levels in rats. Agric Biol Chem 1986; 50:
2483-2491.
200. Choi Y-S, Sugano M. Effects of dietary alpha and
gamma linolenic acid on lipid metabolism in young
and adult rats. Ann Nutr Metab 1988; 32: 169-176.
201. Ishikawa T, Fujiyama Y, Igarashi 0 et al. Effects of
gammalinolenic acid on plasma lipoproteins and apoli-
poproteins. Atherosclerosis 1989; 75: 95-104.
202. Renaud S, McGregor L, Morazain R. Comparative
beneficial effects on platelet functions and atheroscler-
osis of dietary linoleic and gamma-linolenic acids in
the rabbit. Atherosclerosis 1982; 45: 43-51.
203. Hoffmann P, Block H-U, Beitz J et al. Comparative
study of the blood pressure effects of four different
vegetable fats on young, spontaneously hypertensive
rats. Lipids 1986; 21: 733-737.
204. Stone KJ, Willis AL, Hart M et al. The metabolism o\
dihomogamma-linolenic acid in man. Lipids 1979; 14:
174-180.
205. Anon. Effects of feeding dihomogamma-linolenic acid
in man. Nutrition Rev 1979; 37: 286-288.
206. Blond J-P, Lemarchal P, Spielman D. Desaturation of
linoleic and dihomogamma-linolenic acids by human
liver in vitro. C R Acad Sci 1981; 292: 911-914.
207. Horrobin DF, Manku MS, Huang Y-S. Effects of
essential fatty acids on prostaglandin biosynthesis.
Biomed Biochim Acta 1984; 43: 114-120.
208. Horrobin DF. The regulation of prostaglandin
biosynthesis: negative feedback mechanism and the
selective control of 1 and 2 series prostaglandins:
relevance to inflammation and immunity. Med
Hypotheses 1980; 6: 687-709.
209. Horrobin DF. Essential fatty acid metabolism in dis-
eases of connective tissue with special reference to
scleroderma and to Sjogren's syndrome. Med Hypoth-
eses 1984; 14: 233-247.
210. Belch JJF, Shaw B, O'Dowd A et al. Evening prim-
rose oil (Efamol) in the treatment of Raynaud's
phenomenon: a double blind study. Thromb Haemost
1985; 54: 490-494.
211. Puolakka J, Makarainen L, Viinikka L, Ylikorkala 0.
Biochemical and clinical effects of treating the pre-
menstrual syndrome with prostaglandin synthesis pre-
cursors. J Reprod Med 1985; 30: 149-153.
212. Sugano M, Ishida T, Ide T. Effects of various polyun-
saturated fatty acids on blood cholesterol and eicosa-
noids in rats. Agric Biol Chem 1986; 50: 2335-2340.
213. Dodge JA. Essential fatty acids in cystic fibrosis. In:
Horrobin DF, ed. Omega-6 Essential Fatty Acids:
Pathophysiology and roles in clinical medicine. New
York: Alan Liss, 1990: 427-435.
214. Zurier RB, Baker DG.DeMarco D et al. Anti-
inflammatory effects of gamma-linolenic acid: Studies
in animals and in cultured cells. In: Horrobin DF, ed.
Omega-6 Essential Fatty Acids: Pathophysiology and
roles in clinical medicine. New York: Alan Liss, 1990:
203-221.
215. Tate G, Mandell B, Kerolus G et al. Suppression of
experimental acute and chronic inflammation by diets
enriched in gamma-linolenic acid. Arthritis Rheum
1987; 30: 566.
216. Bj0rneboe A, Smith AK, Bj0rneboe GAA et al.
Effect of dietary supplementation with n-3 fatty acids
on clinical manifestations of psoriasis. Br J Dermatol
1988; 118: 77-83.
217. Jensen CD, Spiller GA, Wookey VJ et al. Plasma
lipids on three levels of fish oil intake in healthy
human subjects. Nutr Rep Int 1988; 38: 165-172.
218. Nassar BA, Huang YS, Horrobin DF. Response of
tissue phospholipid fatty acid composition to dietary
(n-6) and replacement with marine (n-3) and saturated
fatty acids in the rat. Nutr Res 1986; 6: 1397-1409.
219. Nassar BA, Huang YS, Manku MS et al. The influ-
ence of dietary manipulation with n-3 and n-6 fatty
acids on liver and plasma phospholipid fatty acids in
rats. Lipids 1986; 21: 652-656.
220. Nassar BA, Manku MS, Huang YS et al. The influ-
ence of dietary marine oil (Polepa) and evening prim-
rose oil (Efamol) on prostaglandin production by the
rat mesenteric vasculature. Prostaglandins Leukot
Med 1987; 26: 253-263.
121. Cleland LG, Gibson RA, Neumann M, French JK.
The effect of dietary fish oil supplement upon the
content of dihomogammalinolenic acid in human plas-
ma phospholipids. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty
Acids, in press.
122. Horrobin DF. Interactions between n-3 and n-6 essen-
tial fatty acids. Presented at International Symposium
on New Aspects of Dietary Lipids. Swedish Institute
for Food Research, Goteborg, Sept 1989.
123. Horrobin DF. Cardiovascular and inflammatory dis-
eases: interactions between n-3 and n-6 essential fatty
acids. N-3 News, in press.
Z24. Glauber H, Wallace P, Griver K et al. Adverse
metabolic effect of omega-3 fatty acids in non-insulin-
dependent diabetes mellitus. Ann Intern Med 1988;
108: 663-668.
225. Rustemeijer C, Bilo HJG, Beukhof JR et al. The
effect of fish oil concentrate on serum lipids and
lipoproteins in patients on maintenance haemodialysis.
Curr Ther Res 1988; 43: 559-567.
Z26. Kasim SE, Stern B, Khilnani S et al. Effects of
omega-3 fish oil on lipid metabolism, glycemic control
and blood pressure in type II diabetic patients.
J ClinEndocrinol Metab 1988; 67: 1-5.
227. Vandongen R, Mori TA, Codde JP et al. Hyper-
cholesterolaemic effect of fish oil in insulin-dependent
diabetic patients. Med J Aust 1988; 148: 141-143.
228. Demke DM, Peters GR, Linet 01 et al. Effects of a
fish oil concentrate in patients with hypercholesterole-
mia. Atherosclerosis 1988; 70: 73-80.
229. Thiery J, Seidel D. Fish oil feeding results in an
enhancement of cholesterol-induced atherosclerosis in
rabbits. Atherosclerosis 1987; 63: 53-56.
230. Dyerberg J, Bang HO, Hjorne N. Fatty acid composi-
tion of the plasma lipids in Greenland Eskimos. Am J
Clin Nutr 1975; 28: 958-966.
231. Horrobin DF. Low prevalence of coronary heart dis-
ease, psoriasis, asthma and rheumatoid arthritis in
Eskimos: are they caused by high dietary intake of
eicosapentaenoic acid, a genetic variation of essential
fatty acid metabolism or a combination of both. Med
Hypotheses 1987; 22: 421-428.
232. Kromann N, Green A. Epidemiological studies in the
Upernavik District, Greenland. Acta Med Scand 1980;
208: 401-406.
233. Sinclair HM. The human nutritional advantages of
plant foods over animal foods. Qual Plant Fds Hum
Nutr 1979; 29: 7-18.
234. Gibson RA, Sinclair AJ. Are Eskimos obligate carni-
vores? Lancet 1980; i: 1100.
235. Vaddadi KS, Courtney P, Gilleard CJ, Manku MS,
Horrobin DF. A double-blind trial of essential fatty
acid supplementation in patients with tardive dys-
kinesia. Psychiatry Res 1989; 27: 313-323.
236. Corrigan F, Horrobin DF. Essential fatty acid supple-
mentation in psychiatric patients. Submitted for pub-
lication.
237. Grattan CEH, Horrobin DF. Partial reversal of essen-
tial fattv acid abnormalities in chronic urticaria and
clinical improvement after evening primrose oil ther-
apy. Submitted for publication.
238. Davidson B, Kurstjens NP, Patton J, Cantrill RC.
Essential fatty acids modulate apomorphine activity at
dopamine receptors in cat caudate slices. Eur J Phar-
macol 1988; 149: 317-322.
239. Davidson BC, Giangregorio A, Girao LAF. Essential
fatty acids in cheetahs and in domestic cats. In:
Horrobin DF, ed. Omega-6 Essential Fatty Acids:
Pathophysiology and roles in clinical medicine. New
York: Alan Liss, 1990: 99-112.
240. Ackman RG. Some possible effects on lipid bioche-
mistry of differences in the distribution on glycerol of
long-chain n-3 fatty acids in the fats of marine fish and
marine mammals. Atherosclerosis 1988; 70: 171-173.
241. Nelson GJ, Ackman RG. Absorption and transport of
fat in mammals with emphasis on n-3 polyunsaturated
fatty acids. Lipids 1988; 23: 1005-1014.
242. Myher JJ, Marai L, Kuksis A. Acylglycerol structure
of peanut oils of different atherogenic potential.
Lipids 1977; 12: 775-785.
243. Elson CE, Dugan LR, Bratzler LJ, Pearson AM.
Effect of isoessential fatty acid lipids from animal and
plant sources on cholesterol levels in mature male
rats. Lipids 1966; 1: 322-324.
244. El Boustani S, Colette C, Monnier L, Descomps B,
Crastes de Paulet A, Mendy F. Enteral absorption in
man of eicosapentaenoic acid in different chemical
forms. Lipids 1987; 22: 711-714.
245. Christophe A, Verdonk G, Robberecht E, Mahatha-
nakhun R. Effect of supplementing medium chain
triglycerides with linoleic acid-rich monoglycerides on
severely disturbed serum lipid fatty acid patterns in
patients with cystic fibrosis. Ann Nutr Metab 1985;
29: 239-245.
246. Jenkins DK, Mitchell JC, Manku MS, Horrobin DF.
Effects of different sources of gamma-linolenic acid on
the formation of essential fatty acid and prostanoid
metabolites. Med Sci Res 1988; 16: 525-526.
247. Yamamoto I, Sugano M, Wada M. Hypocholester-
olaemic effect of animal and plant fats in rats. Ather-
osclerosis 1971; 13: 171-184.
248. Ratnayake WMN, Matthews DG, Ackman RG.
Triacylglycerols of evening primrose (Oenothera bien-
nis) seed oil. J Am Oil Chem Soc 1989; 66: 966-969.
249. Lawson LD, Hughes BG. Human absorption of fish
oil fatty acids as triacylglycerols, free acids, or ethyl
esters. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1988; 152:
328-335.
250. Lawson LD, Hughes BG. Absorption of eico-
sapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid from fish
oil triacylglycerols or fish oil ethyl esters co-ingested
with a high-fat meal. Biochem Biophys Res Commun
1988; 156: 960-963.
251. Lovell CR, Burton JL, Horrobin DF. Treatment of
atopic eczema with evening primrose oil. Lancet 1981;
i: 278.
252. Wright S, Burton JL. Oral evening primrose seed oil
improves atopic eczema. Lancet 1982; ii: 1120-1122.
253. Morse PF, Horrobin DF, Manku MS, Stewart JCM.
Meta-analysis of placebo-controlled studies of the
efficacy of gamma-linolenic acid in the treatment oi
atopic eczema. Br J Dermatol 1989:121: 75-90.
254. Bordoni A, Biagi P, Masi M et al. Evening primrose
oil (Efamol) in the treatment of children with atopic
eczema. Drugs Exp Clin Res 1987: XIV: 291-297.
255. Meigel W. Treatment of atopic dermatitis. Z Hauktr
1986; 61: 473-478.
256. Guenther L, Wexler D. Efamol in the treatment of
atopic dermatitis. J Am Acad Dermatol 1987; 17: 860.
257. Stewart JCM, Morse PF, Moss M, Horrobin DF.
Treatment of severe and moderately severe atopic
eczema with evening primrose oil. A multi-centre
study. Submitted for publication.
258. Marshall RJ, Evans RW. Measurement of the effects
of essential fatty acids on human skin smoothness. In:
Horrobin DF, ed. Omega-6 Essential Fatty Acids:
Pathophysiology and roles in clinical medicine. New
York: Alan Liss, 1990: 81-98.
259. Nissen HP, Wehrmann W, Kroll U, Kreyser HW.
Influence of polyunsaturated fatty acids on the plasma
phospholipids of atopic patients. Fat Sci Technol 1988;
7: 247-288.
260. Bamford JTM, Gibson RW, Renier CM. Atopic ecze-
ma unresponsive to evening primrose oil (linoleic and
gamma-linolenic acids). J Am Acad Dermatol 1985;
13: 959-956.
261. Casimir G, Vermeylen D, Duchateau J. Neonatal
serum IgE concentration as a predictor of atopy
advantages of breast feeding. Rev Med Brux 1983; 4:
323-326.
262. Jackson KA, Gibson RA. Weaning foods cannot
replace breast milk as sources of long-chain polyun-
saturated fatty acids. Am J Clin Nutr 1989; 50:
980-982.
263. Rassias G, Gibson RA. The effect of dietary fat
supplements on breast milk composition. Breastfeed-
ing Rev 1988; 13: 40-42.
264. Carter JP. Gamma-linolenic acid as a nutrient. Food
Technol 1988; June: 72-82.
265. Cant A, Armstrong D, McSporran E, Williams J,
Shay J, Horrobin DF. The effect of maternal supple-
mentation with linoleic acid and gamma-linolenic acids
on the fat composition and content of human milk: a
placebo-controlled trial. Submitted for publication.
266. Stenius-Aarniala B, Aro A, Hakulinen A, Ahola I,
Seppala E, Vapaatalo H. Evening primrose oil and
fish oil are ineffective as supplementary treatment of
bronchial asthma. Ann Allergy 1989; 62: 534-537.
267. Ebden P, Bevan C, Banks J, Fennerty A, Walters
EH. A study of evening primrose seed oil in atopic
asthma. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids
1989; 35: 69-72.
268. Houtsmuller AJ, van Hal-Ferwerda J, Zahn KJ,
Henkes HE. Favourable influences of linoleic acid on
the progression of diabetic micro- and macro-
angiopathy in adult onset diabetes mellitus. Prog Lipid
Res 1982; 20: 377-386.
269. Houtsmuller AJ. Significance of linoleic acid in the
metabolism and therapy of diabetes mellitus. World
Rev Nutr Diet 1982; 39: 85-123.
270. Julu POO. Nerve conduction in diabetic animals and
its modification by diet [PhD thesis]. London: Uni-
versity of London, 1987.
271. Julu POO. Essential fatty acids prevent slowed nerve
conduction in streotozatocin-diabetic rats. Diabetic
Complications 1988; 2: 185-188.
272. Julu POO. Gamma-linolenic acid: a novel remedy for
diabetic neuropathy in experimental animals. In: Hor-
robin DF, ed. Omega-6 Essential Fatty Acids:
Pathophysiology and roles in clinical medicine. New
York: Alan Liss, 1990: 465-476.
273. Tomlinson DR, Robinson JP, Compton AM, Keen P.
Essential fatty acid treatment - effects on nerve con-
duction, polyol pathway and axonal transport in strep-
tozotocin diabetic rats. Diabetologia 1989; 32: 655-
659.
274. Tomlinson DR, Robinson JP, Compton AM. The
effects of gamma-linolenic acid treatment on motor
nerve conduction velocity and axonal transport of
substance P in diabetic rats. In: Horrobin DF, ed.
Omega-6 Essential Fatty Acids: Pathophysiology and
roles in clinical medicine. New York: Alan Liss, 1990:
457-463.
275. Wiesenfeld-Hallin Z, Eneroth P. The effects of even-
ing primrose oil on streptozotocin diabetic rats. In:
Horrobin DF, ed. Omega-6 Essential Fatty Acids:
Pathophysiology and roles in clinical medicine. New
York: Alan Liss, 1990: 477-486.
276. Jamal GA, Carmichael HA, Weir AI. Gamma-
linolenic acid in diabetic neuropathy. Lancet 1986; i:
1098.
277. Jamal GA. Prevention and treatment of diabetic distal
polyneuropathy by the supplementation of gamma-
linolenic acid. In: Horrobin DF, ed. Omega-6 Essen-
tial Fatty Acids: Pathophysiology and roles in clinical
medicine. New York: Alan Liss, 1990: 487-504.
278. Peterson DB, Fisher K, Carter RD. Changes in diet-
ary fatty acids favourably influence platelet composi-
tion in non-insulin dependent diabetics. Diabetologia
1986; 29: 582A.
279. Chaintreuil J, Monnier L, Colette C et al. Effects oi
dietary gamma-linolenate supplementation on serum
lipids and platelet function in insulin-dependent and
diabetic patients. Hum Nutr: Clin Nutr 1984; 38C:
121-130.
280. van Doormaal JJ, Idema IG, Muskiet FAJ, Martini
IA, Doorenbos H. Effects of short-term high dose
intake of evening primrose oil on plasma and cellular
fatty acid compositions, alpha-tocopherol levels, and
erythropoiesis in normal and type I (insulin-
dependent) diabetic men. Diabetologia 1988; 31: 576-
584.
281. Monnier LH, Colette C, Chantreuil J et al. Effects oi
dietary omega 6 polyunsaturated fats on plasma lipids
and platelet function in non-diabetic and diabetic
subjects. Diabetes Res Clin Pract Suppi 1985; 1: S390.
282. Boyd NF, Shannon P, Krivkov V. Effect of a low fat
high carbohydrate diet on symptoms of cyclical masto-
pathy. Lancet 1988; ii: 128-132.
283. Snowdan DA, Phillips RL, Choi W. Diet, obesity,
and risk of fatal prostate cancer. Am J Epidemiol
1984; 120: 244-250.
284. Lamer JM, Eisenfeld AJ, Hochberg RG. Synthesis oi
estradiol fatty acid esters by human breast tumours:
fatty acid composition and comparison to estrogen and
progesterone receptor content. J Steroid Biochem
1985; 23: 637-641.
285. Martvn P. Smith DL, Adams JB. Selective turnover
of the essential fatty acid ester components of estra-
diol 1-17-beta lipoidal derivatives formed by human
mammary cancer cells in culture. J Steroid Biochem
1987; 28: 392-398.
286. MacLusky NJ, Lamer JM, Hochber RG. Actions of
estradiol-17-fatty acid ester in estrogen target tissues
of the rat: comparison with other C-17 metabolites
and a pharmacological C-17 ester. Endocrinology
1989; 124: 318-324.
287. Horrobin DF. Cellular basis of prolactin action: in-
volvement of cyclic nucleotides, poly amines, prostag-
landins, steroids, thyroid hormones. Na/K ATPases
and calcium: relevance to breast cancer and the men-
strual cycle. Med Hypotheses 1979; 5: 599-620.
288. Moffat LE, Horrobin DF. Plasma essential fatty acids
in men with prostatic disease, in preparation.
289. Horrobin DF. The role of essential fatty acids and
prostaglandins in the premenstrual syndrome. J Re-
prod Med 1983; 28: 465-468.
290. Ockerman PA, Backrack I, Glans S, Rassner S.
Evening primrose oil as a treatment of the premen-
strual syndrome. Recent Adv Clin Nutr 1986; 2:
404-405.
291. Pye JK, Mansel RE, Hughes LE. Clinical experience
of drug treatments for mastalgia. Lancet 1985; ii:
373-377.
292. Mansel RE, Pye JK, Hughes LE. Effects of essential
fatty acids on cyclical mastalgia and non-cyclical breast
disorders. In: Horrobin DF, ed. Omega-6 Essential
Fatty Acids: Pathophysiology and roles in clinical
medicine. New York: Alan Liss, 1990: 557-566.
293. O'Brien PMS, Massil H. Premenstrual syndrome: cli-
nical studies on essential fatty acids. In: Horrobin DF,
ed. Omega-6 Essential Fatty Acids: Pathophysiology
and roles in clinical medicine. New York: Alan Liss,
1990: 523-545.
294. Casper RF, Powell AM. Effects of evening primrose
oil in the treatment of premenstrual syndrome. 2nd
International Symposium on premenstrual, postpartum
and menopausal mood disorders. Kiawah Island,
South Carolina, Sep 9-13, 1987.
295. Cotterell JC, Lee AJ, Hunter JO. Double-blind cros-
sover trial of evening primrose oil in women with
menstrually-related irritable bowel syndrome. In: Hor-
robin DF, ed. Omega-6 Essential Fatty Acids:
Pathophysiology and roles in clinical medicine. New
York: Alan Liss, 1990: 421-426.
296. Brush MG. Evening primrose oil (Efamol) in the
treatment of premenstrual syndrome. In: Horrobin
DF, ed. Clinical Uses of Essential Fatty Acids. Mon-
treal: Eden Press, 1983: 155-162.
297. Zurier RB, Quagliata F. Effect of prostaglandin E1on
adjuvant arthritis. Nature 1971; 234: 304-305.
298. Zurier RB, Sayadoff DM, Torrey SB, Rothfield NF.
Prostaglandin E treatment in NZB/NZW mice.
Arthritis Rheum 1977; 20: 723-728.
299. Kunkel SL, Campbell D A, Chensue S W, Higashi G
I. Species-dependent regulation of
monocyte/macrophage la Antigen expression and anti-
gen presentation by prostaglandin E. Cell Immunol
1986; 97: 140-145.
300. Kunkel SL, Ogawa H, Ward PA, Zurier RB. Suppres-
sion of chronic inflammation by evening primrose oil.
Prog Lipid Res 1982; 20: 885-888.
301. Stackpoole A, Mertin J. The effect of prostaglandin
precursors in in vivo models of cell-mediated immun-
ity. Prog Lipid Res 1982; 20: 649-654.
302. Mertin J, Mertin LA. Modulation of in vivo immune
responses following changes in the intake of essential
fatty acids. Prog Allergy 1988; 44: 273-206.
303. Godfrey DG, Stimson WH, Watson J, Belch JJF,
Sturrock RD. The modulation of autoimmunity in the
RML-mp-lpr/lpr mouse by dietary fatty acid supple-
mentation. Prog Lipid Res 1986; 25: 298-293.
304. Karmali RA. Effect of dietary fatty acids on ex-
perimental manifestation of Salmonella -associated
arthritis in rats. II. Prostaglandins Leukot Med 1987;
29: 199-204.
305. Tate G, Mandell BF, Karmali RA et al. Suppression
of monosodium urate crystal-induced acute inflamma-
tion by diets enriched with gamma-linolenic acid and
eicosapentaenoic acid. Arth Rheum 1988; 31: 1543-
1551.
306. Tate G, Mandell BF, Laposata M et al. Suppression
of acute and chronic inflammation by dietary gamma
linolenic acid. J Rheumatol 1989; 16: 729-733.
307. Hansen TM, Lerche A, Kassis V, Lorenzen I, Sonder-
gaard J. Treatment of rheumatoid arthritis with pros-
taglandin E1precursors cis-linoleic acid and gamma-
linolenic acid. Scand J Rheumatol 1983; 12: 85-88.
308. Belch JJ, Ansell D, Madhock R, O'Dowd A, Sturrock
RD. The effects of altering dietary essential fatty acids
on requirements for non-steroidal anti-inflammatory
drugs in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Ann
Rheum Dis 1988; 47: 96-104.
309. Horrobin DF, Campbell A. Sjogren's syndrome and
the sicca syndrome: the role of prostaglandin Ei
deficiency. Treatment with essential fatty acids and
vitamin C. Med Hypotheses 1980; 6: 225-232.
310. Horrobin DF. Essential fatty acid and prostaglandin
metabolism in Sjogren's syndrome, systemic sclerosis
and rheumatoid arthritis. Scand J Rheumatol 1986;
61: 242-245.
311. Horrobin DF. Essential fatty acid metabolism in dis-
eases of connective tissue with special reference to
scleroderma and to Sjogren's syndrome. Med Hypoth-
eses 1984; 14: 233-247.
312. Manthorpe R, Hagen Peterson S, Prause JU. Primary
Sjogren's syndrome treated with Efamol/Efavit.
Rheumatol Int 1984; 4: 165-167.
313. Oxholm P, Manthorpe R, Prause JU, Horrobin DF.
Patients with Primary Sjogren's syndrome treated for
two months with evening primrose oil. Scand J
Rheumatol 1986; 15: 103-108.
314. Manthorpe R, Manthorpe T, Oxholm A, Oxholm P,
Prause JU. Primary Sjogren's syndrome: new con-
cepts. In: Horrobin DF, ed. Omega-6 Essential Fatty
Acids: Pathophysiology and roles in clinical medicine.
New York: Alan Liss, 1990: 239-253.
315. Jenkins AP, Thompson RPH. Trophic effect of Efa-
mol on the rat small-intestinal mucosa. Clin Sci 1989;
77: 555-559.
316. Tarnawski A, Hollander D, Cergely H. Cytoprotec-
tive drugs. Focus on essential fatty acids and sucral-
fate. Scand J Gastroenterol 1987; 22(127): 39-43.
317. Tarnawski A, Hollander D, Gergely H. Protection of
the gastric mucosa by linoleic acid - a nutrient essen-
tial fatty acid. Clin Invest Med 1987; 10: 132-135.
318. Pritchard P, Brown G, Bhaskar B, Hawkey C. The
effect of dietary fatty acids on the gastric production
of prostaglandins and aspirin-induced injury. Aliment
Pharmacol Ther 1988; 2: 179-184.
319. de la Hunt MN, Hillier K, Jewell R. Modification of
upper gastrointestinal prostaglandin synthesis by diet-
ary fatty acids. Prostaglandins 1988; 35: 597-608.
320. Huang Y-S, Drummond R, Horrobin DF. Protective
effect of gamma-linolenic acid on aspirin-induced gas-
tric hemorrhage in rats. Digestion 1987; 36: 36-41.
321. Thompson RHS, Jenkins AP. A placebo-controlled
trial of fish oil and Efamol evening primrose oil in
ulcerative colitis. In preparation.
322. Novak E. Maintaining remission of Crohn's disease.
Can Med Assoc J 1988; 139: 14.
323. Currie JM, Wright RC, Miller OG. The frequency of
warts in atopic patients. Cutis 1971; 8: 243-244.
324. Solomon LM, Telner P. Eruptive molluscum con-
tagiosum in atopic dermatitis. Can Med Assoc J 1966;
95: 978-979.
325. Sands J, Auperin D, Snipes W. Extreme sensitivity of
enveloped viruses, including herpes simplex, to long
chain unsaturated monoglycerides and alcohols. Anti-
microb Agents Chemother 1979; 15: 67-73.
326. Isaacs CE, Thormar H, Pessolano T. Membrane-
disruptive effect of human milk: inactivation of en-
veloped viruses. J Infect Dis 1986; 154: 966-971.
327. Horowitz B, Piet MPJ, Prince AM et al. Inactivation
of lipid-enveloped viruses in labile blood derivatives
by unsaturated fatty acids. Vox Sang 1988; 54: 14-20.
328. Behan PO, Behan WMH. Essential fatty acids in the
treatment of post-viral fatigue syndrome. In: Horrobin
DF, ed. Omega-6 Essential Fatty Acids: Pathophysiol-
ogy and roles in clinical medicine. New York: Alan
Liss, 1990: 275-282.
329. Casper RF, MacLusky NJ. Dietary supplementation
with polyunsaturated fatty acids in the treatment of
endometriosis. In: Horrobin DF, ed. Omega-6 Essen-
tial Fatty Acids: Pathophysiology and roles in clinical
medicine. New York: Alan Liss, 1990: 547-555.
330. Horrobin DF. Schizophrenia as a prostaglandin de-
ficiency disease. Lancet 1977; i: 936-937.
331. Horrobin DF. Schizophrenia: reconciliation of the
dopamine, prostaglandin, and opioid concepts and the
role of the pineal. Lancet 1979; i: 529-531.
332. Horrobin DF, Ally AI, Karmali RA, Karmazyn M,
Manku MS, Morgan RO. Prostaglandins and schi-
zophrenia: further discussion of the evidence. Psychol
Med 1978; 8: 43-48.
333. Horrobin DF. Essential fatty acids and prostaglandins
in schizophrenia and alcoholism. In: Shagass C, ed.
Biological Psychiatry 1985. Amsterdam: Elsevier,
1986: 1163-1165.
334. Horrobin DF. Essential fatty acids, prostaglandins and
schizophrenia. Proceedings of the World Congress of
Psychiatry, Athens, October 12-19, 1989, in press.
335. Horrobin DF, Manku MS, Morse-Fisher N et al.
Essential fatty acids in plasma phospholipids in schi-
zophrenia. Biol Psychiatry 1989; 25: 562-568.
336. Bates C, Torrey EF, Horrobin DF. Essential fatty
acid levels in olasma from American identical twins
discordant for schizophrenia. In preparation.
337. Kaiya H, Horrobin DF. Essential and other fatty acids
in plasma in schizophrenics and normal individuals
from Japan. Submitted for publication.
338. Horrobin DF, Manku MS, Hillman H, Glen AIM.
Fatty acid levels in the brains of schizophrenics and
normal controls. Submitted for publication.
339. Christensen 0, Christensen E. Fat consumption and
schizophrenia. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1988; 78: 587-
591.
340. Vaddadi KS. Penicillin and essential fatty acid supple-
mentation in schizophrenia. Prostaglandins Med 1979;
2: 77-80.
341. Soulairac A, Lambinet H, Neuman J-C. Schizophrenic
et prostaglandines effets therapeutiques de precurseurs
de leur synthese sous la forme de Fhuile d'onagre
(oenothere). Ann Med-Psychol (Paris) 1983; 8: 883-
890.
342. Holman CP, Bell AFJ. A trial of evening primrose oil
in the treatment of chronic schizophrenia. J Ortho-
molec Psychiatry 1983; 12: 302-304.
343. Vaddadi KS, Gilleard CJ, Mindham RHS, Butler R.
A controlled trial of prostaglandin E1precursor in
chronic neuroleptic-resistant schizophrenic patients.
Psychopharmacology 1986; 88: 362-367.
344. Vaddadi KS, Gilleard CJ, Courtney P, Horrobin DF.
Essential fatty acid and vitamin supplementation in
pscyhiatric patients with tardive dyskinesia. Submitted
for publication.
345. Manku MS, Oka M, Horrobin DF. Differential reg-
ulation of the formation of prostaglandins and related
substances from arachidonic acid and from dihomo-
gammalinolenic acid. I. Effects of ethanol. Prostaglan-
dins Med 1979; 3: 119-128.
346. Segarnick DJ, Ryer H, Rotrosen J. Precursor and
pool-dependent differential effects of ethanol on hu-
man platelet prostanoid synthesis. Biochem Pharmacol
1985; 34: 1343-1346.
347. Rotrosen J, Mandio D, Segarnick D, Traficante LJ,
Gershon S. Ethanol and prostaglandin Ei: biochemic-
al and behavioral interactions. Life Sci 1980; 26:
1867-1876.
348. Karpe F, Heri A, Anggard E. The effect of dietary
primrose oil on ethanol withdrawal in the rat. Acta
Pharmacol Toxicol (Copenh) 1983; 53(Suppl 2): 18P.
349. Bonthius DJ, West JR. Aspirin augments alcohol in
restricting brain growth in the neonatal rat. Neurotox-
icol Teratol 1989; 11: 135-143.
350. Varma PK, Persaud TVN. Protection against ethanol-
induced embryonic damage by administering gamma-
linolenic and linoleic acids. Prostaglandins Leukot
Med 1982; 8: 641-645.
351. Glen E, MacDonell L, Glen I, MacKenzie J. Possible
pharmacological approaches to the prevention and
treatment of alcohol-related CNS damage: results of a
double blind trial of essential fatty acid: In: Edwards
G, Littleton J, eds. Pharmacological Treatments for
Alcoholism. London: Croom Helm, 1985: 331-350.
352. Skinner FK, MacDonell LEF, Glen EMT, Glen AIM.
Repeated automated assessment of abstinent male
alcoholics: essential fatty acid supplementation and
age effects. Alcohol Alcoholism 1989; 24: 129-139.
353. Glen AIM. Glen EMT, Macdonald FK. Essential
fatty acids in the treatment of the alcohol dependence
syndrome. In: Birch GG, Lindley MG, eds. Alcoholic
Beverages. Amsterdam: Elsevier 1985: 203-221.
354. Corrigan F, van Rijn A. Essential fatty acid and
anti-oxidant treatment in Alzheimer^s disease. Submit-
ted for publication.
355. Corrigan F, van Rijn A. Effects of evening primrose
oil on tests of psychiatric state. In preparation.
356. Simpson LO, Olds RJ, Hunter JA. Changes in rheolo-
gical properties of blood in cigarette smokers taking
Efamol: a pilot study. University of Otago Medical
School Proceedings 1984; 62: 122-123.
357. Wincour PH, Durrington PN, Ishola M et al. Influ-
ence of proteinuria on vascular disease, blood press-
ure and lipoproteins in insulin-dependent diabetes ^
mellitus. Br Med J 1987; 294: 1648-1651.
358. Fontbonne A, Eschwege E, Cambien F, et al. Hyper-
triglyceridaemia as a risk factor of coronary heart
disease mortality in subjects with impaired glucose
tolerance or diabetes. Diabetologie 1989; 32: 300-304.
359. Rosgengren A, Welin L, Tsipogianni A, Wilhelmsen
L. Impact of cardiovascular risk factors on coronary
heart disease and mortality among middle aged diabe-
tic men: a general population study. Br Med J 1989;
299: 1127-1131.
360. Miettinen TA, Naukkarinen V, Huttunen JK et al.
Fatty acid composition of serum predicts myocardial
infarction. Br Med J 1982; 285: 993-996.
361. Sinclair HM. Deficiency of essential fatty acids and
atherosclerosis, etc. Lancet 1956; i: 381-383.
362. Sinclair HM. History of essential fatty acids. In:
Horrobin DF, ed. Omega-6 Essential Fatty Acids:
Pathophysiology and roles in clinical medicine. New
York: Alan Liss, 1990: 1-20.
363. Burr ML, Gilbert JF, Holliday RM et al. Effects of
changes in fat, fish, and fibre intakes on death and
myocardial reinfarction: diet and reinfarction trial
(DART). Lancet 1989; ii: 757-761.
364. Singer P, Jaeger W, Voigt S, Thiel H. Defective
desaturation and elongation of n-6 and n-3 fatty acids
in hypertensive patients. Prostaglandins Leukot Med
1984; 15: 159-166.
365. Singer P, Naumann E, Hoffman P et al. Attenuation
of high blood pressure by primrose oil, linseed oil and
sunflowerseed oil in spontaneously hypertensive rats.
Biomed Biochim Acta 1984; 43: 243-246.
366. Hoffman P, Taube CH, Bartels T, Heinemann S,
Forster W. Cardiovascular effects of antihypertensive
drugs as affected by dietary polyunsaturates. Biomed
Biochim Acta 1984; 43: 195-198.
367. Hassall CH, Kirtland SJ. Dihomo-gamma-linolenic
acid reverses hypertension induced in rats by diets rich
in saturated fat. Lipids 1984; 19: 699-703.
568. Mills DE, Summers MR, Ward RP. Gamma linolenic
acid attenuates cardiovascular responses to stress in
borderline hypertensive rats. Lipids 1985; 20: 573-577.
369. Watanabe Y, Huang Y-S, Simmons VA, Horrobin
DF. The effect of dietary n-6 and n-3 polyunsaturated
fatty acids on blood pressure and tissue faty acid
composition in spontaneously hypertensive rats. Lipids
1989; 24: 638-644.
370. Mills DE, Ward RP, Mah M, DeVette L. Dietary n-6
and n-3 fatty acids and salt-induced hypertension in
the borderline hypertensive rat. Lipids 1989; 24: 17-24.
371. Mills DE, Ward RP, Huang Y-S. Effects of n-3 and
n-6 fatty acid supplementation on cardiovascular and
endocrine responses to stress in the rat. Nutr Res
1989; 9: 405-414.
372. Mills DE, Ward RP. Effects of essential fatty acid
administration on cardiovascular responses to stress in
the rat. Lipids 1986; 21: 139-142.
373. Watanabe Y, Manku MS, Jenkins DK, Mitchell J,
Horrobin DF. The effects of short term dietary sup-
plementation with evening primrose or safflower oil
on fatty acid and prostaglandin release from perfused
mesenteric vascular beds in spontaneously hyperten-
sive rats. Nutr Res 1988; 8: 517-528.
374. Mills DE, Ward RP. Dietary n-6 and n-3 fatty acids
and stress-induced hypertension. In: Horrobin DF, ed.
Omega-6 Essential Fatty Acids: Pathophysiology and
roles in clinical medicine. New York: Alan Liss, 1990:
145-156.
375. Bursztyn PG, King MH. Fat induced hypertension in
rabbits: the effects of dietary linoleic and linolenic
acid. J Hypertension 1986; 4: 699-702.
376. O'Brien PMS, Morrison R, Broughton-Pipkin F. The
effect of dietary supplementation with linoleic and
gammalinolenic acids on the pressor response to
angiotensin II - a possible role in pregnancy-induced
hypertension? Br J Clin Pharmacol 1985; 19: 335-342.
377. Broughton-Pipkin F. Essential fatty acids and pre-
gnancy hypertension. In: Horrobin DF, ed. Omega-6
Essential Fatty Acids: Pathophysiology and roles in
clinical medicine. New York: Alan Liss, 1990: 173-186.
378. Fievet P, Tribout B, Castier B, et al. Effects of
evening primrose oil (EPO) on platelet functions
during pregnancy in patients with high risk of tox-
emia. Kidney Int 1985; 28(2): 234.
379. Gray I. The effects of evening primrose oil adminis-
tration on blood pressure in mildly hypertensive indi-
viduals. BSc Thesis, University of London, 1988.
380. Venter CP, Joubert PH, Booyens J. Effects of essen-
tial fatty acids on mild to moderate essential hyperten-
sion. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 1988;
33: 49-51.
381. Mills DE. Dietary fatty acids and cardiovascular reac-
tivity in borderline hypertensives. Am Oil Chem Soc
Meeting, Baltimore, April 20-23, 1990.
382. Harris WS. Fish oils and plasma lipid and lipoprotein
metabolism in humans: a critical review. J Lipid Res
1989; 30: 785-807.
383. Willis AL, Comai K, Kuhn DC, Paulsrud J. Dihomo-
gamma-linolenate suppresses platelet aggregation
when administered in vitro or in vivo. Prostaglandins
1974; 8: 509-519.
384. Kirtland SJ, Buchanan T, Cowan I, Hooper H,
Shawyer CR. Dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid increases
prostacyclin production and reduces platelet thrombo-
xane synthesis in the rat. Prog Lipid Res 1986; 25:
331-334.
385. Szczeklik A, Gryglewski RJ, Sladek K et al. Dihomo-
gammalinolenic acid in patients with atherosclerosis:
effects on platelet aggregation, plasma lipids and low
density lipoprotein-induced inhibition of prostacyclin
generation. Thromb Haemost 1984; 51: 186-188.
386. Juan H, Sametz W. Dihomogammalinolenic acid in-
creases the metabolism of eicosapentaenoic acid in
perfused vascular tissue. Prostaglandins Leukot Med
1985; 19: 79-86.
387. Horrobin DF. A new concept of cardiovascular dis-
ease: the importance of interactions between
cholesterol, essential fatty acids, prostaglandin E1and
TXA2. Med Hypotheses 1980; 6: 785-800.
388. Nissen HM, Bojesen I. On lipid droplets in renal
interstitial cells. Z Zeilforsch Mikrosk Anat 1969; 97:
274-284.
389. Barcelli U, Pollak VE. Is there a role for polyunsatu-
rated fatty acids in the prevention of renal disease and
renal failure? Nephron 1985; 41: 209-212.
390. Elzinga L, Kelley VE, Houghton DC, Bennett WM.
Modification of experimental nephrotoxicity with fish
oil as the vehicle for cyclosporine. Transplantation
1987; 43: 271-274.
391. Monis B, Eynard AR. Incidence of urothelial tumors
in rats deficient in essential fatty acids. J Nati Cancer
Inst 1980; 64: 73-79.
392. Monis B, Eynard AR. Abnormal cell proliferation
and differentiation and urothelial tumorigenesis in
essential fatty acid deficient rats. Prog Lipid Res 1982;
20: 691-703.
393. McLinton S, Moffat LEF, Horrobin DF, Manku MS.
Abnormalities of essential fatty acid distribution in the
plasma phospholipids of patients with bladder cancer.
Submitted for publication.
394. Barcelli UO, Miyata J, Ito Y et al. Beneficial effects
of polyunsaturated fatty acids in partially nephrecto-
mized rats. Prostaglandins 1986; 32: 211-219.
395. Barcelli UO, Beach DC, Thompson B, Weiss M,
Pollak E. A diet containing n-3 and n-6 fatty acids
favorably alters the renal phospholipids, eicosanoid
synthesis and plasma lipids in nephrotic rats. Lipids
1988; 23: 1059-1063.
396. Papanikolaou N. Alteration of mercuric chloride-
induced autoimmune glomerulonephritis in brown-
Norway rats by herring oil, evening primrose oil and
OKY-046 a selective TXA-synthetase inhibitor. Pros-
taglandins Leukot Med 1987; 27: 129-149.
397. McHugh MI, Wilkinson R, Elliott RW, et al. Im-
munosuppression with polyunsaturated fatty acids in
renal transplantation. Transplantation 1977; 24: 263-
267.
398. Burlakova EB. Bioantioxidants and synthetic inhibi-
tors of radical processes. Russian Chem Rev 1975; 44:
871-880.
399. Ohnishi T. Lipid peroxide formation and phospholipid
in normal and tumor tissues. Gann 1958; 49: 233-248.
400. Cheeseman KH, Burton GW, Ingold KV et al. Lipid
peroxidation and lipid antioxidants in normal and
tumour cells. Toxicol Pathol 1984; 12: 235-239.
401. Utsumi K, Yamamotot G, Inaba K. Failure of ferrous
iron induced lipid peroxidation and swelling in the
mitochondria isolated from ascites tumor cells.
Biochim Biophys Acta 1965; 105: 368-371.
402. Bartoli GM, Galeotti T. Growth related lipid perox-
idation in tumors, microsomal membranes and
mitochondria. Biochim Biophys Acta 1979; 574: 537-
541.
403. Burns CP, Spector AA. Membrane fatty acid mod-
ification in tumor cells: a potential therapeutic ad-
junct. Lipids 1987; 22: 178-184.
404. Diplock AT, Balasubramanian KA, Manohar M et al.
Purification and chemical characterisation of the in-
hibitor of lipid peroxidation from intestinal mucosa.
Biochim Biophys Acta 1988; 962: 42-50.
405. Shiroeda 0, Yamaguchi N, Kawai K. Stimulation of
low density lipoprotein receptor activity by con-
ditioned medium from a human cancer cell line.
Cancer Res 1987; 47: 4630-4633.
406. Roach PD, Kambouris AM, Trimble RP, Topping
DL, Nestel PJ. The effects of dietary fish oil on
hepatic high density and low density lipoprotein recep-
tor activities in the rat. FEBS Lett 1987; 222: 159-162.
407. Gonzalez M. Serum concentrations and cellular up-
take of vitamin E. Med Hypotheses, in press.
408. Begin ME, Ells G, Horrobin DF. Polyunsaturated
fatty acid-induced cytotoxicity against tumor cells and
its relationship to lipid peroxidation. J Nati Cancer
Inst 1988; 80: 188-194.
409. Fujiwara F, Todo S, Imashuku S. Antitumor effect of
gamma-linolenic acid on cultured human neuroblasto-
ma cells. Prostaglandins Leukot Med 1984; 15: 15-34.
410. Begin ME, Ells G, Das UN. Selected fatty acids as
possible intermediates for selective cytotoxic activity
of anticancer agents involving oxygen radicals. Anti-
cancer Res 1986; 6: 291-296.
411. Begin ME, Ells G, Horrobin DF. Effects of eicosa-
noid precursors on TBA reactive material in normal
and malignant cells. In: Walden TL, Hughes HN, eds.
Prostaglandin and Lipid Metabolism in Radiation In-
jury. New York: Plenum Publishing Corp. 1987: 345-352.
412. Das UN, Begin ME, Ells G et al. Polyunsaturated
fatty acids augment free radical generation in turnoi
cells in vitro. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1987;
145: 15-24.
413. Dippenaar N, Booyens J, Fabri D et al. The reversi-
bility of cancer: evidence that malignancy in human
hepatoma cells is gamma-linolenic acid deficiency de-
pendent. S Afr Med J 1982; 62: 683-685.
414. Dippenaar N, Booyens J, Fabri D et al. The reversi-
bility of cancer: evidence that malignancy in melano-
ma cells is gamma-linolenic acid deficiency dependent.
S Afr Med J 1982; 62: 505-509.
415. Booyens J, Dippenaar N, Fabri D. The effect of the
prostaglandin precursor gamma-linolenic acid on the
rate of proliferation of human osteogenic sarcoma and
oesophageal carcinoma cells in culture. S Afr Med J
1984; 65: 240-242.
416. Leary WP, Robinson KM, Booyens J et al. Some
effects of gamma-linolenic acid on cultured human
oesophageal carcinoma cells. S Afr Med J 1982; 62:
681-683.
417. Booyens J, Louwrens C, Engelbrecht P. Some effects
of the prostaglandin precursor fatty acid, gamma-
linolenic acid, and prostaglandin E1 on the prolifera-
tion of human hepatoma cells in culture. S Afr J Sci
1984; 80: 144.
418. Begin ME, Ells G, Das UN, Horrobin DF. Differen-
tial killing of human carcinoma cells supplemented
with n-3 and n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids. J Nati
Cancer Inst 1986; 77: 1053-1062.
419. Botha JH, Robinson KM, Leary WP. The response of
breast carcinoma cell lines to gamma-linolenic acid
with special reference to the effects of agents which
influence prostaglandin and thromboxane synthesis.
Prostaglandins Leukot Med 1985; 19: 63-67.
420. Booyens J, Engelbrecht P, Le Roux S et al. Some
effects of the essential fatty acids linoleic acid and
alpha linolenic acid and of their metabolites gamma-
linolenic acid, arachidonic acid, eicosapentaenoic acid
and docosahexaenoic acid, and of prostaglandins Ai
and E1on the proliferation of human osteogenic
sarcoma cells in culture. Prostaglandins Leukot Med
1984; 15: 15-33.
421. Begin ME, Ells G. Effects of C18 fatty acids on breast
carcinoma cells in culture. Anticancer Res 1987; 7:
215-218.
422. Begin ME, Das UN, Ells G. Cytoxic effects of essen-
tial fatty acids in mixed cultures of normal and malig-
nant human cells. Prog Lipid Res 1986; 25: 573-576.
423. Ghayur T, Horrobin DF. Effects of essential fatty
acids in the form of evening primrose oil on the
growth of the rat R3230AC transplantable mammary
tumour. IRCS Med Sci 1981; 9: 582.
424. Karmali RA, Marsh J, Fuchs C. Effects of dietary
enrichment with gamma-linolenic acid upon growth of
the R3230AC mammary adenocarcinoma. J Nutr
Growth Cancer 1985; 2: 41-51.
425. Abou El-Ela SH, Prasse KW, Carroll R, Bunce OR.
Effects of dietary primrose oil on mammary tumor-
igenesis induced by 7, 12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene.
Lipids 1987; 22: 1041-1044.
426. Abou El-Ela SH, Prasse KW, Carroll R et al. Eicosa-
noid synthesis in 7, 12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene-
induced mammary carcinomas in Sprague-Dawley rats
fed primrose oil, menhaden oil, or corn oil diet.
Lipids 1988; 23: 948-954.
427. Lee JH, Sugano M. Effects of linoleic and gamma-
linolenic acid on 7, 12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene-
induced rat mammary tumors. Nutr Rep Int 1986; 34:
1041-1049.
428. Cameron E, Bland J, Marcuson R. Divergent effects
of omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids on mammary
tumor development in C3H/Heston mice treated with
DMBA. Nutr Res 1989; 9: 383-393.
429. Bunce OR, Abou El-Ela SH. Eicosanoid synthesis
and ornithine decarboxylase activity in mammary
tumors of rats fed varying levels and types of n-3
and/or n-6 fatty acids. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent
Fatty Acids, in press.
430. Pritchard GA, Mansel RE. The effects of essential
fatty acids on the growth of breast cancer and melano-
ma. In: Horrobin DF, ed. Omega-6 essential fatty
acids: Pathophysiology and roles in clinical medicine.
New York: Alan R Liss, 1990: 379-390.
431. Pritchard GA, Jones DL, Mansel RE. Lipids in breast
carcinogenesis. Br J Surg 1989; 76: 1069-1073.
432. Van Der Merwe CF. The reversibility of cancer. S Afr
Med J 1984; 65: 712.
433. Van Der Merwe CF, Booyens J, Katzeff IE. Oral
gamma-linolenic acid in 21 patients with untreatable
malignancy. Br J Clin Pract 1987; 41: 907-915.
434. Mclllmurray M, Turkic W. Controlled trial of gamma-
linolenic acid in Duke's C colorectal cancer. Br Med J
1987; 294: 1260.
435. Kruszynska Y, Horrobin DF. Plasma fatty acid levels
in patients with liver failure. In preparation.
436. Biagi PL, Hrelia S, Stafanini GF, Zunarelli P, Bordo-
ni A. Delta-6-desaturase activity of human liver
microsomes from patients with different types of liver
injury. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids, in
press.
437. Greig PD, Woolf GM, Abecassis M et al. Treatment
of primary liver graft non-function with prostaglandin
E1results in increased graft and patient survival.
Transplant Proc 1989; 21: 2385-2388.
438. Guarner F, Fremont-Smith M, Prieto J. Cyto-
protective effect of prostaglandins on isolated rat liver
cells. Liver 1985; 5: 35-39.
439. Sinclair SB, Flowers M, Sherman M et al. Manage-
ment of recurrent hepatitis B infection in liver trans-
plant recipients with iv and oral prostaglandin E
(PGEi). Hepatology 1989; 10: 696.
440. Cunnane SC, Horrobin DF. Essential fatty acids pro-
tect against carbon tetrachloride-induced liver damage
in the rat. J Am Oil Chem Soc 1983; 60: 749.
441. Triger DR. Essential fatty acids in primary biliary
cirrhosis. In: Horrobin DF, ed. Omega-6 essential
fatty acids: Pathophysiology and roles in clinical medi-
cine. New York: Alan R Liss, 1990: 437-446.
442. Cronholm T, Neri A, Karpe F, Curstedt T. Influence
of dietary fats on pancreatic phospholipids of chroni-
cally ethanol-treated rats. Lipids 1988; 23: 841-848.
443. Uzzan A. Borage oil and other plant oils rich in
GLA: present status in Western Europe. Rev Fr
Corps Gras 1988; 35: 501-504.
444. Traitler H, Winter H. Fatty acid patterns in organ
lipids in response to dietary blackcurrant seed oil rich
in gamma-linolenic acid. Prog Lipid Res 1986; 25:
255-261.
445. Traitler H, Wille HJ, Studer A. Fractionation of
blackcurrant seed oil. J Am Oil Chem Soc 1988; 65:
755-760.
446. Crozier GL, Fleith M, Traitler H, Finot PA. Black-
currant seed oil feeding and fatty acids in liver lipid
classes of guinea pigs. Lipids 1989; 24: 460-466.
447. Ratledge C. Microbial technology of lipids. Lipid
Technology 1989; 1: 34-39.
448. Rilliet A, Queille C, Saurat J-H. Effects of gamma-
linolenic acid in atopic dermatitis. Dermatologica
1988; 177: 257.
449. Qureshi AA. Inhibition of cholesterol biosynthesis by
cereal components containing gamma-linolenic acid.
In preparation.
450. Wieser H, Stempfl W, Grosch W, Belitz H-D. Unter-
suchungen uber den Bittergeschmack von Emulsionen
hoherer Fettsauren. Z Lebensm Unters Forsch 1984;
179: 447-449.
451. McGandy RB, Hegsted DK, Myers ML. Use of
semisynthetic fats in determining effects of specific
dietary fatty acids on serum lipids in man. Am J Clin
Nutr 1970; 23: 1288-1298.
452. Christophe A, Matthys F, Geers R, Verdonk G.
Nutritional studies with randomized butter.
Cholesteremic effects of butter-oil and randomized
butter-oil in man. Arch Intern Phvsiol Biochim 1978:
86: 413-415.
453. Everett DJ, Perry CJ, Bayliss P. Carcinogenicity stu-
dies of Efamol evening primrose oil in rats and mice.
Med Sci Res 1988; 16: 865-866.
454. Everett DJ, Greenough RJ, Perry CJ, McDonald P,
Bayliss P. Chronic toxicity studies of Efamol evening
primrose oil in rats and dogs. Med Sci Res 1988; 16:
863-864.
455. Vaddadi KS. The use of gamma-linolenic acid and
linoleic acid to differentiate between temporal lobe
epilepsy and schizophrenia. Prostaglandins Med 1981;
6: 375-379.
456. Gamaniel K, Wuorela H, Vapaatalo H. Effects of
iloprost, prostaglandin Ei (PGE1) and prostacyclin
(PGI2) on chemically and electrically induced seizures
in mice. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids
1989; 35: 63-68.
457. Horrobin DF, Manku MS, Oka M et al. The nutri-
tional regulation of T lymphocyte function. Med
Hypotheses 1979; 5: 969-985.
458. Watkins BA, Kratzer FH. Effects of dietary biotin
and linoleate on polyunsaturated fatty acids in tissue
phospholipids. Poultry Sci 1987; 66: 2024-2031.
459. Kramer TR, Briske-Anderson M, Johnson SB, Hoi-
man RT. Effects of biotin deficiency on polyunsatu-
rated fatty acid metabolism in rats. J Nutr 1984; 114:
2047-2052.
460. Horrobin DF, Cunnane SC. Interactions between
zinc, essential fatty acids and prostaglandins: rele-
vance to acrodermatitis enteropathica, total parenteral
nutrition, the glucagonoma syndrome, diabetes,
anorexia nervosa and sickle cell anaemia. Med
Hypotheses 1980; 6: 277-296.
461. Pottathill R, Huang S-W, Chandrabose KA. Essential
fatty acids in diabetes and systemic lupus erythemato-
sus patients. Biochem Biophyis Res Commun 1985;
128:803-808.
462. Huang Y-S, McAdoo KR, Mitchell J, Horrobin DF.
Effects of calcium deprivation on n-6 fatty acid meta-
bolism in growing rats. Biochem Med Metabolic Biol
1988; 40: 61-67.
463. Manku MS, Horrobin DF, Karmazyn M, Cunnane
SC. Prolactin and zinc effects on rat vascular reactiv-
ity: possible relationship to dihomogammalinolenic
acid and to prostaglandin synthesis. Endocrinology
1979; 104: 774-779.
464. Nozaki S, Kihara S, Kubo M, Kameda K, Matsuzawa
Y, Tarui S. Increased compliance of niceritrol treat-
ment by addition of aspirin: relationship between
changes in prostaglandins and skin flushing. Int J Clin
Pharmacol Ther Toxicol 1987; 25: 643-647.
465. Cunnane SC, McAdoo KR, Prohaska JR. Lipid and
fatty acid composition of organs from copper-deficient
mice. J Nutr 1986; 116: 1248-1256.
466. Huang YS, Manku MS, Mitchell J, Horrobin DF.
Effects of high vitamin A intake on plasma and liver
phospholipid and triglyceride fatty acid compositions
in hamsters. Nutr Res 1985; 5: 95-100.
467. Huang Y-S, Manku MS, Kent T, Nassar BA, Horro-
bin DF. A possible new mechanism of action of
aspirin and other non-steroidal anti-inflammatory
drugs: inhibition of essential fatty acid metabolism.
Prog Lipid Res 1986; 25: 633-635.
|